Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including architectural engineering, environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, control engineering, structural engineering, earthquake engineering, transportation engineering, forensic engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, wastewater engineering, offshore engineering, facade engineering, quantity surveying, coastal engineering,[4] construction surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.
History of the civil engineering profession
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably.[7] The construction of pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km,[8]) the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads.
In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5] The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6] In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.
In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:
the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[9]The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[10] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[11][12] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.[13]
History of civil engineering
Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.
Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[14]
One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations
The civil engineer
Education and licensure
Main article: Civil engineer
Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century.
Snapshot from shake-table video[17] testing of base-isolated (right) and regular (left) building models
The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients."[18] This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec.[19]
No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by.[20]
Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, he may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges.[21] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law.
Sub-disciplines
The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, currently the world's longest suspension span.
Materials science and engineering
Main article: Materials science
Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It
studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with
ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such
as aluminum and steel, and polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers.Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis.
Coastal engineering
Main articles: Coastal engineering and Coastal management
Oosterscheldekering sea wall, the Netherlands.
Construction engineering
Main article: Construction engineering
Construction engineering involves planning and execution,
transportation of materials, site development based on hydraulic,
environmental, structural and geotechnical engineering. As construction
firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil
engineering firms do, construction engineers often engage in more
business-like transactions, for example, drafting and reviewing
contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring prices of supplies.Earthquake engineering
Main article: Earthquake engineering
Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to
withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a
sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of
earthquake engineering are[22]
to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee
the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and
maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes.Environmental engineering
Main article: Environmental engineering
Water pollution
Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.
Geotechnical engineering
Main article: Geotechnical engineering
A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids.
Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult.[23]
Water resources engineering
See also: Hydraulic engineering and Hydrology
Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.
Structural engineering
Main article: Structural engineering
Burj Khalifa animation of construction process
Shallow foundation construction example
Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructability, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.
Surveying
Main articles: Surveying and Construction surveying
Civil engineering students using a theodolite.
- Land surveying
- Construction surveying
- Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible;
- "lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings;
- Verifying the location of structures during construction;
- As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans.
Transportation engineering
Main article: Transportation engineering
The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, England, attempts to make traffic flow free-moving
Forensic engineering
Main article: Forensic engineering
Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products,
structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as
intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The
consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability.
The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to
accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied
most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal
law cases. Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation
is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve
performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining
the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of
intellectual property claims, especially patents.Municipal or urban engineering
Main article: Urban engineering
Lake Chapultepec
Control engineering
Main article: Control engineering
Control engineering (or control systems engineering) is the branch of civil engineering discipline that applies control theory
to design systems with desired behaviors. The practice uses sensors to
measure the output performance of the device being controlled (often a
vehicle) and those measurements can be used to give feedback to the
input actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance.
When a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs
for correction it is called automatic control
(such as cruise control for regulating a car's speed).
Multidisciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities
focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.Civil engineering associations
The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland
- American Society of Civil Engineers
- Canadian Society for Civil Engineering
- Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
- Engineers Australia
- European Federation of National Engineering Associations
- International Federation of Consulting Engineers
- Institution of Civil Engineers
- The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors
- Institution of Engineers of Ireland
- Institute of Transportation Engineers
- Pakistan Engineering Council
- Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers
- Transportation Research Board
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